The WAR of 1812: The “Forgotten War”
Copyright © Henry J. Sage 1996-2008

Introduction

Many Americans probably think that the “1812 Overture” was written to commemorate the war of 1812, especially since it is often performed on the 4^th of July to the accompaniment of bells and cannon. In fact, the work was written by Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky to celebrate Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in that year. That faulty connection, however, is not as far-fetched as it may seem.

In the first place, the War of 1812 has often been called a forgotten war, with good reason. Few Americans know very much about the War of 1812 beyond the fact that it was fought with the British and that there was a Battle of New Orleans involved. Some may also associate the burning of the White House or the writing of the Star Spangled Banner with the war, but only vaguely. Part of the reason for that vagueness may be that the war changed very little in America: The end of the war restored the status quo ante bellum, that is, it left everything the way it had been when the war began (except, of course, for the dead and wounded.)  In addition, the end of the war coincided with the end of the Napoleonic wars (the War of 1812 ended six months before Waterloo) and was thus overshadowed by the greater events going on in Europe. Added to that is that fact that with a few notable exceptions, the Americans did always not fight well, even allowing their capital to be burned by the British in 1814.

The second reason why the confusion with the events in Russia in 1812 is understandable is that the two events were in fact related. The War of 1812 began as a result of the fighting in Europe, which left America, a neutral nation, besieged by both major players—France and England—as it tried to carry on normal trade in abnormal times. The war, in other words, was fought largely over neutral rights, although issues such as national pride, economics and regional politics certainly played their share. The fact of the Napoleonic wars also helped determine the way in which the British fought the war, for they felt that Napoleon was a far greater danger to the world than any minor acts of interference (as they saw it) they might have committed with regard to American trade.

Thus there are many reasons why Americans do not really celebrate the War of 1812. The war did, however, produce its share of victories and heroes—most famously, Andrew Jackson at New Orleans. In the end, however, the most important result of the war of 1812 may have been the fact that placed America on the world stage at a level which had not been achieved by the Revolution. The American experiment was considered just that, an experiment, and many Europeans fully expected the new nation to fail, as it well might have. The War of 1812 has thus been called with some justification America’s second war for independence—an assertion of America's position as a nation worthy of respect. 

At the start America was woefully unprepared for conflict. There was lack of unanimity over the causes, organization was poor, and militia forces—a necessary adjunct to the regulars—displayed a general unwillingness to go beyond their own state borders to fight. Few strong leaders remained from the Revolutionary generation, and early encounters with the British, though they were still distracted by Napoleon, were disastrous.

Nevertheless, American sailors were very capable, and American soldiers, when well led, were prepared to fight. However poorly the Americans fought the war, they did indeed fight it, growing stronger as the war progressed and achieved at worst a stalemate. New leaders emerged such as Andrew Jackson, Oliver Hazard Perry, Thomas MacDonough and Winfield Scott. In fact, had the war gone on longer, the Americans might well have given the British more defeats as significant though perhaps not as one-sided as the Battle of New Orleans. Finally, no matter how sharply Americans were divided over the war early in 1812, the end of the war brought the “Era of Good Feelings,” which though perhaps misnamed nevertheless showed that America had come through the war essentially intact.

Despite the losses, America probably gained more than it lost from the war. If nothing else, the conduct of the war left the powerful lessons that wars should not be entered into lightly or for the wrong reasons, and that it is best to be prepared for war before the fighting begins rather than having to improvise once hostilities have actually begun. The latter lesson is one Americans have had to “learn” several times.

Review: Chronology of Events leading up to the War.

Summary: U.S. Objectives of the War of 1812 were as follows:

• Get the British to repeal their Orders in Council, which placed severe trade restrictions on the Americans.
• Get the British to stop the impressment of American sailors into the Royal Navy.
• Assert Americans' rights to freedom of the seas. (See Madison’s War Message to Congress.)

Despite early optimism, American war efforts were marred by poor preparation and management, ineffective leadership, and an ill-designed strategy. Americans expected victory even though unprepared. President Madison had problems in his administration beyond his control, and by the end of the war the Americans were getting their house in order. In New England, where the Federalists were still strong, people refused to take an active part in the war effort. Great Britain was in a state of turmoil politically, which helped bring the war about and contributed to its conduct by the British.  King George III was by then totally insane, and the Prime minister (Spencer Percival) had been killed. Preoccupied with Napoleon, Great Britain appeared ineffective in executing offensive operations, which was fortunate for the Americans.

The Military Campaigns

The United States Army in 1812 was small, and state militias proved inadequate to fight well-trained British soldiers, who had been fighting Napoleon for a decade. Veterans of the American Revolution were almost all dead or retired. Early campaigns were designed to take Canada, an appealing goal because of the abundance of land, the lucrative fur trade and problems with Indians. All the early Canadian campaigns were unsuccessful, however. Isaac Hull surrendered to the British in Detroit, and Van Rensalaer’s New York militia troops refused to enter Canada.

In 1814, England planned a three-pronged attack on the United States—a march from Canada into the Hudson River Valley, an amphibious assault on the Chesapeake Bay region, and occupation of New Orleans. The decisive campaign was in New York State, where Americans under Commodore Thomas McDonough stopped the English on Lake Champlain, near Plattsburg. In the meantime, however, English operations in the Chesapeake resulted in the burning of Washington after the poor performance of Americans at Bladensburg, Maryland, which failed to stop the advancing redcoats. When the British began a siege of Baltimore, Americans did make a strong stand at Ft. McHenry (left), which led Francis Scott Key to compose his famous anthem.

The Battle of New Orleans

During the War of 1812 a conflict erupted in the Southwest involving a faction of the Creek Indians known as the “Red Sticks.” When Indians attacked Ft. Mims in the Alabama territory and killed several hundred residents, Major General Andrew Jackson led the Tennessee militia in a series of battles against the Creeks that ended at Horseshoe Bend in March, 1814. In May Jackson was named American commander in the New Orleans area, just as the British were planning to take New Orleans with a large force of 7,500 veterans under Sir Edwin Packenham. The British planned to take control of the entire Mississippi River Valley.

A nighttime raid by Jackson’s men disrupted Pakenham’s march on the city from the east, and Jackson then took up a strong position south of New Orleans between a Cyprus swamp and the east bank of the Mississippi. Jackson’s force was a motley collection of Tennessee and Kentucky sharpshooters, members of Jean Lafitte’s pirate band and various volunteer groups of Creoles and fire brigades from the city. He quickly constructed heavy breastworks along his defensive position that offered good firing positions for artillery and riflemen.

Packenham’s force of over 5,000 redcoats disembarked below Jackson's position and prepared to advance. Veterans of campaigns against Napoleon's troops, the British were confident of swift victory and expected to dispatch the Americans without difficulty.  As they advanced upon Jackson's entrenchments, behind which 4,500 defenders, many of them expert rifleman, awaited the attacking British, the attackers were met by a rude shock.  The redcoats were cut down unmercifully, and Packenham himself was killed. The British suffered over 2,000 men killed and wounded; the Americans had eight killed and 13 wounded.

The Battle of New Orleans was one of the most one-sided victories in all of American military history, and although it had no direct impact on the war, it was a huge morale booster for the Americans, and created a hero in Andrew Jackson, which would eventually result in his election to the nation's highest office. The great irony of the Battle of New Orleans was that it actually took place after the peace treaty had been signed, but there was no way to communicate the news in time to prevent the battle.

The Naval War. Although badly outnumbered, the U.S. Navy nevertheless distinguished itself during the War of 1812. New shipping was needed but was not built in at the outset of the war; thus the American blue-water Navy collectively was generally ineffective against the much larger Royal Navy. On the other hand, American ships were better than British ships on a one-to-one level. The U.S.S. Constitution (left) under Captain Isaac Hull defeated H.M.S. Guerriere on August 19, 1812, in one of a number of individual ship victories for the Americans. American privateers did very well; 148 “legalized pirates” captured 1300 British ships, damaging the British cause. Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry's victory on Lake Erie secured the Northwest Territory firmly under American control. Another fleet victory by Commodore Thomas Macdonough on Lake Champlain turned back the attempted British invasion from Canada.

THE TREATY OF GHENT: Status Quo Ante Bellum

After the American victory at Plattsburg on Lake Champlain, the English government decided to enter negotiations to end the war without addressing any of the problems that had started it. The Duke of Wellington also advised the British government to abandon the war. As much of the war had gone badly for the Americans, Madison was also ready to negotiate, and sent a peace party consisting of, among others, John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay to the city of Ghent in Belgium, where discussions were to be held. Both sides were weary of the war, and an agreement was reached to end the war and restore the status quo ante bellum. 

The Treaty of Ghent, signed on Christmas Eve 1814, thus ended the deadlock of war with no major concessions granted by either side. The belated American victory at the Battle of New Orleans led to a widespread conception that the United States had won the War of 1812, and the Senate ratified the treaty unanimously. For Americans, the war succeeded splendidly. They had won a “second war of independence.” After treaty Great Britain still considered the war a stab in the back when they were in trouble—they still saw the Yankees as “degenerate Englishmen.” The British victory at Waterloo and the American victory at New Orleans, however, detracted from bad feelings on both sides. In addition, the end of the Napoleonic wars rendered issues such as impressment and neutral rights moot.

The Treaty of Ghent, signed on Christmas Eve 1814, ended the deadlock of war with no major concessions granted by either side. A belated American victory at the Battle of New Orleans led to a widespread conception that the United States had won the War of 1812. After the American victory at Plattsburg, the English government decided to end the war without addressing any of the problems that had started it. Both sides were weary, and the Senate ratified the treaty unanimously. For Americans, the war succeeded splendidly. They had won a "second war of independence."

• The American Peace Party included John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay. The Duke of Wellington advised England to abandon the war. After treaty Great Britain still considered the war a stab in the back when they were in trouble—they saw the Yankees as "degenerate Englishmen" The British victory at Waterloo and the American victory at New Orleans detracted from bad feelings.
• America refuses to cede territory; alteration of fishing rights and transit of Mississippi issues disappear.
• Status Quo Ante Bellum is restored. (The state is which things were before the war.)

The Battle of New Orleans and the Naval War of 1812 demonstrated that American soldiers were capable of fighting when well led, and that American ships and sailors were very good.

Despite the losses, America probably gained more than it lost from the war. If nothing else, the conduct of the war left the powerful lessons that wars should not be entered into lightly or for the wrong reasons, and that it is best to be prepared for war before the fighting begins rather than having to improvise once hostilities have actually begun.

The Treaty of Ghent discredited the Federalists and killed the party.

AFTERMATH OF WAR—The Fruits of "Victory": The American victory was convincing to Europe

• End of Barbary Tributes—freedom from harassment by pirates.
• The Indians were the big losers—they backed the wrong side (Not the first time nor the last.)
• The End of the Federalists
• Reform of Republicans: The New Nationalism
• The "Hundred Years’ Peace" Begins in Europe with the Congress of Vienna

SIGNIFICANCE OF WAR OF 1812: End of Struggle for Independence

Jeffersonian Democracy | Updated April 4, 2008