Background to World War II:
American Foreign Policy 1920-1941

United States Diplomacy in the 1920s: The Aftermath of the Great War

The Washington Naval Conference convened in November 1921, and in the opening address Secretary Hughes gave a candid speech in which he declared that “the way to this arm is to disarm,” and that the time to begin was immediately. Thus he proposed a 10 year holiday in the construction of capital ships—battleships and heavy cruisers—and he also recommended the scrapping of other ships. One British reporter claimed that Secretary Hughes had in 15 minutes “sunk more ships than all the admirals of the world have sunk over the centuries.”

Although Hughes's proposals were welcomed by many peace advocates, traditional naval powers such as Great Britain were less than enthusiastic. Nevertheless, the pressure for disarmament was such that an agreement was finally reached which would limit the ratio of capital ships among the five major powers: the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan. The Five-Power naval treaty was signed in February, 1922, and was to remain in effect until 1936. The treaty placed a limitation on the numbers and sizes of major warships, although it did not affect smaller vessels such as destroyers, submarines and cruisers. The conference also agreed on a four-power treaty in which Great Britain, the United States, Japan, and France agreed to respect each other's interests in the Pacific. Finally, a Nine Power Treaty endorsed the Open Door policy in China. Those who signed that agreement agreed to respect the “sovereignty, independence, and territorial and administrative integrity of China” and to uphold the principles of the Open Door.

The Washington Conference was a landmark event, and it was followed by other attempts to reduce armaments and control the forces that tended to lead to war. Further conferences were held at Geneva and London, but ultimately none of the agreements ever prevented anything significant. In 1927 with rumblings in Germany, France approached the United States with a proposal that the two nations enter into a defensive alliance, an obvious attempt to provide protection in advance in case of German retaliation. Secretary of State Kellogg, not wanting to become snarled in an alliance, suggested a wider pact that would “outlaw”war. Thus the Kellogg-Briand Pact was signed in 1928, though many realized that its goals were illusory. (One U.S. Senator claimed it was “not worth a postage stamp.”)

A similar agreement arose from a meeting in Locarno, Switzerland, in 1925 among representatives of Britain, France, Belgium, Italy, and Germany. Under the leadership of Gustav Stresemann, German Foreign Minister, the meeting settled a number of security issues involving France, Belgium and Germany. Germany also signed agreements with its eastern neighbors, but just as important was the “Spirit of Locarno” that emerged, an indication that all the major powers intended to try to settle their differences peaceably. Following the signing of the Locarno Pact, Germany was admitted to the League of Nations. Along with Friedrich Ebert, President of the German (Weimar) Republic, Stresemann showed great statesmanship, but unfortunately for Germany and the rest of the World, Hitler and the Nazis were on the rise in the 1920s.

In the mid-1930s, as war clouds began to gather in Europe and Asia, Americans who found themselves in the depths of the Depression did not want to think of further war, so the country retreated into a deeper position of isolationism. In 1935 under the leadership of Senator Gerald Nye of North Dakota, the Senate held hearings on the causes of the first world war and came to the conclusion that it was the “merchants of death,” the armaments industry and bankers, that had forced the United States into the war. In the aftermath of these hearings that touched a responsive nerve among many Americans the Senate passed the Neutrality Act of 1935, which President Roosevelt signed. Further neutrality acts were passed in 1936 and the net result of those laws was to handcuff the United States, even if it had any legitimate desire to assist nations that were victims of international aggression. The outbreak of the Spanish civil war in 1936 demonstrated that the United States was now prevented even from helping friendly nations. By 1937 international tensions had risen to the point that the United States backed off and passed a less restrictive neutrality act, but the United States was clearly not in a mood to get back into war.

Summary of American policy 1920-1939 and beyond:

• The Red Scare of 1919—"100% Americanism—follows World War I. Americans want to let Europe stew in its own juice, etc. Americans show an incredible indifference to the fate of Europe during the 1920s
• The U.S. follows foreign policy that is narrow, cautious, and self-centered and refuses to be bound by any agreement to preserve international peace. (No “entangling alliances.”)
• Anti-Japanese immigration policy; tight immigration laws a paradox considering number of immigrants already in U.S.
• The U.S. military is reduced to 118,00 by 1927.
• Washington wants World War I debts paid, quarrels with almost everybody over various issues. America had loaned Allies during and after war a total of $11billion. Great Britain proposes canceling reparations debts if U.S. will cancel Great Britain's $4 billion debt. U.S. refuses.
• The nation remains primarily isolationist throughout the 1930s.
• As WWII nears, the U.S. becomes increasingly involved in world affairs and takes a leading role in maintaining world order.
• In World War II the U.S. becomes the dominant world power.
• As the Soviet Union rises in the years following World War II and the Cold War builds, Americans learn they can no longer live in isolation.

The Good Neighbor Policy. The U.S. has a history of intervention in Latin America going back to the time of Andrew Jackson in Florida when it still belonged to Spain. Presidents Hoover and Roosevelt and many other Americans slowly recognize the basic unfairness of America’s Latin American policy. Both Harding and Coolidge had to deal with growing "Yankee-phobia" south of the border. Hoover rejects Wilson’s interventionist policies and goes on a goodwill tour after the 1928 election. The gradual removal of all occupying forces is begun and is completed by 1934. The United States also renounces the right to intervene in Cuban affairs by terminating the Platt Amendment. Many problem areas still exist, and the U.S. has difficult problems to resolve with various nations, but the “good neighbor” policy improves relations enormously, so that by World War II the Western Hemisphere is reasonable unified, even though the United States is still seen as the “colossus of the North.”

In 1936 FDR attends the Buenos Aires Inter-American Conference. FDR’s address to the delegates is well received—he calls himself a “Traveling salesman for peace” and preaches “mutual safety.” The Lima Declaration of 1938 reinforces inter-American solidarity.

In the crisis years of 1931-1939 the U.S. responded by going deeper into isolationism. American saw themselves as “innocent bystanders” in world affairs. In 1933 the U.S. finally recognized the Soviet government and established formal relations with the USSR—primarily for business reasons. In 1935-6 when Hitler began to menace Europe, Americans wanted to stay out, but didn’t know how. Secretary of State Stimson says: “The only sure way to stay out of war is to prevent it.”

The Nye Committee Hearings. Senator Gerald Nye of North Dakota tried to show that munitions makers had made "huge" profits during W.W.I. and were therefore somehow responsible for America’s involvement in the conflict. They were called the "Merchants of Death." Although the results of the Nye Committee investigation were inconclusive, the isolationists won the day and several Neutrality Acts were the result:

• The Neutrality Act of 1935 forbade sale of arms to belligerents. Civilians enter war zone on belligerent ships at their own risk. FDR signs the Act in August 1935.
• The arms embargo on all nations portion was opposed by FDR because it made it impossible for us to influence the action.
• The Act was invoked in 1935 when Italy invaded Ethiopia. No neutrals on belligerent ships. Italy insulted. (Lesson: Don't go around insulting belligerents when trying to stay out of war.) Half-hearted sanctions made things worse, as was demonstrated when Italy attacked Ethiopia.

• Belief that the depression had been caused by W.W.I.
• Belief that Europe was unworthy of our support
• Pacifism—people who hated and abhorred war
• Belief that arms manufacturers, bankers had caused war
• Belief that W.W.I. had been a tragic mistake for the U.S.

1936 The 1935 Neutrality Act is extended to 1 May 1937 and forbids loans or credits to belligerents.

August 14: FDR makes his Chautauqua speech: "I hate war." Very strong speech, in which he holds out for discretionary power, but his words still please the isolationists. The American people feel (correctly) that Europe is going to go up in flames and that we should stay out. The U.S. is criticized for aloofness, but France and Great Britain don't do much either.

See FDR Chautauqua Speech, 1936.

1937 New Neutrality Law restricts arms sales, neutral travel, forbids arming merchantmen; cash and carry on items other than munitions allows profit-making without involvement. Much discretion granted to president to list other items. The Neutrality Act are never invoked against Japan because war never declared on China. By not invoking Neutrality Act FDR in effect aided China. But Japan also helped because of large merchant marine.

1937 Peak of isolationism. Gallup poll: 94% say "keep out" over "prevent." In his Quarantine Speech FDR urges isolation of aggressors. Widespread boycott of Japanese goods follows. Constitutional amendment proposed that except in case of invasion, declarations of war would be conducted by referendum.

See FDR Quarantine Speech.

1939 Germany attacks Poland, September 1. World War II in Europe begins.

1939 Neutrality ("Cash and Carry") Act repeals Neutrality Act of 1937. Declaring of war zone gives Hitler justification for using U-boats. No doubt which side we are on this time.

As war progresses, U.S. becomes appalled at Hitler's tyranny; measures short of war seen as OK—whatever we could get away with. FDR pushed it as far as he could.

Albert Einstein sends letter to FDR about possible atomic bomb. Manhattan Project begun.

1940. By 1940 the U.S. population is 131.7 million. In April Germany overruns Denmark in one day, and Norway takes only one month. Belgium, the Netherlands and France fall quickly as well. Thousands of British and French soldiers are saved by the “miracle” of Dunkirk. By June 22 the French have capitulated. The British now stand alone, and Churchill faces the future with “grim resolution,” looking toward the U.S. for help.

See FDR’s "Hand that held the Dagger" Speech, Charlottesville, 1940.

The U.S. institutes first ever peacetime draft, begins rearming.

May-June FDR calls for increased military expenditures, releases outdated military equipment to Great Britain. $43 million worth sent in June alone.

20 June. FDR names Republicans Stimson and Knox to War and Navy posts—spirit of cooperation in the face of crisis. Still the internationalist-isolationist debate goes on. Many clubs and organizations urge non-involvement. As war grows closer, FDR falls behind public opinion, perhaps from over-concern with isolationists like Lindbergh.

1940 Presidential Election: A third term for FDR a major issue. Much isolationist sentiment among Republicans. No Democratic challengers to FDR. “Man above the fray.” Willkie too close to FDR on most issues to draw any distinction. FDR’s promise: “I have said it … again and again and again. Your boys are not going to be sent to fight in any foreign wars.”

Results: New Deal programs were very popular. Hard to make political hay out of many of the issues. FDR wins 55-49%, smaller percentage than in 1932 or 1936. Still, 449-82 in Electoral College. “Don't switch horses in the middle of the stream.”

1941 In this section see FDR’s “Arsenal of Democracy” Speech, The Atlantic Charter, and FDR’s “Day of Infamy.”

Feb-May: Battle of the Atlantic. Germans do great damage to shipping, sink U.S. ships within sight of shore. January-March Secret military talks in Washington between U.S., British staffs decide Germany first policy.
Japan signs non-aggression pact with Russia

March 11. Lend-Lease Act comes about as result of correspondence between Churchill and FDR. $7 billion—largest appropriation in U.S. history. Total in war $50 billion.

April. FDR extends convoy patrols across Atlantic nearly to Iceland. U.S. destroyers fire at U-boots with some success, losses. OPA established.

Balkans overrun by Germany, Italy--Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Greece, Crete. Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria fall into Axis camp. Germany comes to the aid of Italy in Africa.

May U.S. suspends diplomatic relations with Germany and Italy.

June 22: Hitler invades Russia: No ultimatum, no declaration. Huge front 1800 miles; Germany attacks on 3 axes. First counterattack Nov-Dec 1941.

The Atlantic Charter. FDR and Churchill meet August 11-12 in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland. After talks they issue a joint statement of war aims against the Axis.

• Renounced territorial aggrandizement
• Opposed territorial changes against will of people
• Self determination of form of government
• Easing international trade
• Improve social, economic conditions for world's people
• Freedom from want and fear
• Disarmament of aggressors, permanent peace structure

Winter 1941-42: Napoleon revisited. FDR agrees to aid Russia—$1B in Lend Lease.

Oct 17: U.S.S. Kearny attacked by U-boat, 11 killed.

Oct 30: Reuben James sunk, 2/3 of crew of about 200 perish.

Nov 17. Armed merchantmen are now authorized. Step by step, closer and closer to war.

Nov. Ambassador Joseph Grew (to Japan) warns FDR that Japan may attack the U.S.

Nov 27: Pacific commanders warned that Japanese fleet has left home waters.

December 7: Pearl Harbor. Strong sense of national purpose--right and wrong clear. No question about the mission: defeat the axis as quickly and decisively as possible.

Japanese take Philippines, Guam, Wake, Hong Kong in short order. Prince of Wales and Repulse sunk.

See "Day of Infamy"

Pearl Harbor. In class we will discuss various theories about FDR and Pearl Harbor. Suffice it to say here that there is no credible evidence of his complicity or knowledge of the attack in any way. See books by Gordon W. Prange: At Dawn we Slept; Pearl Harbor: The Verdict of History. Both these works cover Pearl Harbor in great detail.

Copyright © Henry J. Sage 2006

Updated November 3, 2006